Sonnys Blues (An Insight) Essay -- essays research papers

Baldwin’s â€Å"Sonny’s Blues†, set in Harlem in 1957, was largely about the struggles of an ethnic minority and the stagnation they feel, but moreso how two brothers come to understand each other due to their struggles and from years of living their own, very different lives.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Baldwin’s constant, detailed, reflections helped me immensely in understanding this story. I feel that they served as a constant reminder of the social context in which this story takes place. It helped to have those incessant reminders because I kept thinking it takes place in recent years, versus the 1950s, before the Civil Rights Movement was in full swing. The biggest idea that I had to keep in mind was that the racism (ultimately leading to stagnation/oppression) presented in the context was â€Å"accepted† at this point in time. By â€Å"accepted† I mean that there were not yet any written laws in place to protect blacks against these acts, not that the actions were morally correct or acceptable.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Sonny’s side of the story represented one perspective of the African American experience in this time period. He accepts his status & tries to live within the black culture and deal with it distress that goes along with it, just to keep his dignity. At first, he channels his afflictions through music. There eventually becomes a time in his life when can no longer deal with the pain or suffering and Sonny takes the well-beaten path of turning to heroin, t...

Lifespan Development and Personality

Oprah Winfrey’s development as an individual has a very unique and interesting perspective in terms of Psychological development. Ms. Winfrey is a product of an â€Å"accidental conception† by her parents. Her mother was a house maid and her father was a coil miner. At the age of 6 and 14, she was raped and sexually molested by her uncle and cousin. Her mother was often not around to help her and guide her. Ironically, even though she was having a hard time at home, she still excelled in school and had scholarship to support her education. As a growing child, she was used to poverty and hardships.After the incident of sexual molestations, she was forced to live with her dad. During these times, Oprah was helped by her dad to focus on her studies. At an age of 18 she won the Miss Black Tennessee Beauty pageant and then later on was given a job at a local radio station. Her exposure to media later evolved as she aspired to become a prominent figure in American Television years later. The forces that made big differences in her life are her childhood experiences and family as well as her experiences in her late adolescent years. The mixture of her bad memories and her successful life can be accounted on how she managed the anxieties and problems in which she might have encountered in the process of her maturity as a person.Oprah can be said to have a bad environment growing up. The way of life she lived in the poverty stricken places she grew up on might had opened her eyes on the realities of life even on   a tender age. She was not nurtured well also because her mother was irresponsible. Her father helped her to focus on her studies in her adolescent years but still had missed out a lot of important years in the childhood days. Fortunately, she overcame all adversities with her innate ability to be diligent in her goals.Even though she underwent a depressing phase in her childhood, she was also compensated later on by good education and support f rom her father. Emotionally, she might have chosen to become depressed and angry at life. In fact, she showed signs of rebellion at age 14 when she got regnant but eventually lost her baby. You can see the transition of her life as she was guided by her father. She became more focus and determined in life.There was less hostility in her environment as she entered the late adolescent and it helped her to become the person she is today. Today Oprah is known to be the good moral type of person. She is a philanthropist and helps the needy people in America as well as other parts of the globe. Her view of morality can be traced back to how she saw the injustices in her society in her childhood. The oppression of black people, the life her parents lived, and the way her classmates made fun of her due to her poverty opened her eyes on what’s right and wrong. Her ability today to empathize and sympathize is really a product of her first hand experience with the good and bad experienc es her had.Going back to her moral and emotional development, I want to focus more on the negative experiences she had in her childhood. We can see that Oprah went through a lot in her childhood. In Erik Erikson’s theory of development, she was at around stage three when her sexual molestation experiences happened. This stage is important since this is a stage where a crisis in a person’s development happens (initiative-guilt). The fact that family plays the biggest role in this stage makes her more vulnerable to level on more guilt than initiative. Instead of helping her feel purposeful and learn new skills, her family at that time mistreated her. In her next stage of development (industry and inferiority), she might had leveled on more inferiority than industry.This is where she was having troubles in school and starting to rebel on her family. She might have a sense of â€Å"inertia† or inferiority complex due to the fact that she had not strong support syste m in her family. When â€Å"inertia† happens, the child usually avoids doing something she was not able or failed to do properly (Boeree, 1997). In Oprah’s situation she might had given up on building good relationship with her family. Fortunately she was able to over come it as time went on and she stayed with her father. As she progress on to the stage five (ego-identity and role confusion crisis), she looked like she was successful in balancing out the crisis due to the fact her father offered social support for her and she was excelling in her studies.This might had giver her good amount of confidence to share herself to others and to be comfortable to be oneself. Her excellence in school and constant exposure to media might led her to develop a good social support system. Together with her father’s guidance, she had a healthy support system that helped her achieve many goals in her life. A good social support system of friends and family is vital in everyon e’s growth and security in life. After a turbulent childhood, she was able to find good connection to the world by her achievement. Later on in her life, she was one of the most powerful women in television and Hollywood. She helped people who needed help. She influenced politics. President Bill Clinton even singed an â€Å"Oprah bill† for the creations of a database of child abusers. She opened schools for people who can’t afford to go school. She directed her passion of helping other children and victims of catastrophe. She is said to be one of the most credible and influential Americans in history.Two theories of personality best apply for Ms. Winfrey. Abraham Maslow’s theory of heirrachy of needs can help us understand how Oprah’s traits and actions develop through her career and as a person. In her childhood, she was stuck on surviving on the first level of needs (physiological needs). As she grew older, she was given more and more support by her father, colleagues and friends. She was able to climb up the hierarchy of needs. By the time she was in her 20’s, she had already fulfilled the safety, belonging and esteem part of the hierarchy of needs. Today, she is seen to help others and use her past dispute in life as her tool to help and change other people’s lives.She is on a level in which she is self-actualizing and reaching out to help other since she had already fulfilled her own needs. Being in this self-actualization state, people who reached this usually has the continuous desire to fulfill his potential to become more and more of what you want (Boeree, 1997). In connection to this theory, Viktor Frankl’s theory of transcendence is a good approach in her case. Ms. Winfrey’s painful past could have destroyed her internally and made her a depressed person throughout life but instead she was able to transcend her experience to something useful to the world.She channeled her pain and suffer ing to counseling others in her show. She gave moral support to women who were abused and children who were in the same situation as her.   In comparing the two theories, Viktor Frankl stated that self-actualization is the side-effect of transcendence. In conclusion, the theory of transcendence of Frankl best accounts her behavior. Oprah’s actions and behaviors towards finding meaning in her life and helping others can be seen more of a spiritual and self less acts rather than Maslow’s theory in which people satisfy their own self-actualization needs thus resulting to helping others. Oprah over came a lot of adversities and trial in life and was able to overcome many â€Å"noogenic anxiety† that might have come in her way. She can be said to have found meaning in what she does today. She transforms her life’s experiences and lessons to something for the betterment of others.ReferencesBoeree, C. (1997). Retrieved on 24 April 2008 fromhttp://webspace.ship .edu/cgboer/perscontents.htmlBoeree, C. (1997). Retrieved on 24 April 2008 fromhttp://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/erikson.htmlBoeree, C. (1997). Retrieved on 24 April 2008 fromhttp://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/frankl.htmlBoeree, C. (1997). Retrieved on 24 April 2008 fromhttp://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/maslow.htmlDinh, M. & Murphy, J. (2008). Retrived on 24 April 2008 fromhttp://people.com/tag/oprah-winfrey/Unknown. (2008). REtrived on 24 April 2008 fromhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oprah_Winfrey

Babe Ruth Research Paper

The Great Bambino George Herman Ruth was born in Baltimore Maryland on February 6th 1895. His mother gave birth to him on the second floor of her father’s house. George is the oldest of 8 children. He was often missing from school. George was officially named a juvenile delinquent after his bouts skipping school. At a very young age George began drinking, chewing tobacco, and stealing (Berke 18). People around him were fed up with his behavior and he was sent to Catholic school. During his stint there, George made a positive out of it and made a 360 turn around.He was taken care of by Xaverian brothers from the School, St. Mary’s  (Berke 19). Ruth’s baseball career began when he was attending St. Mary’s (Berke 19). In the early 1900s, baseball was at its prime. Oddly, he pitched and batted left-handed, but started out catching in his young years. The last two years spent in school he was a staggering six feet, two inches and weighed in at 170 pounds. Ris ing to popularity at school, he became a major asset to the baseball team, and was promoted to pitcher and became the teams lead hitter and pitcher (Berke 22).Orioles signed Ruth to a six-month contract that paid him $600. It is said that in batting practice alone babe attracted up to 30,000 fans (Berke 22). Twenty-two games were won while Ruth was with Baltimore. In the early part of his career, Babe Ruth walked a batter and struck an umpire, getting himself thrown out of the game. In the series against the Dodgers, he pitched 4 games to one (Berke 23 – 24). The rising star soon was sold to the Boston Red Sox. The great Bambino’s salary jumped from a six hundred dollar check to a whopping thirty five hundred dollars.His primary position for Boston was pitcher. Ruth was one of few in the league that pitched left-handed and this would help Boston become exceptionally well. The first game Ruth ever pitched with Boston was a 4 – 3 win over Cleveland. Ruth’s first year with Boston he became good friends with Map, another great ball player at this time. He would also become teammates with him again in the future Yankees team. George Herman Ruth’s first recorded homerun was a game against New York and it was a straight shot to the upper deck of right field in the polo grounds off of Jack Warhop.The year was 1915 and the Bambino was named best pitcher and hitter for Boston (Berke 31,32,33). This year the Red Sox was named the best team in the Major League. Ruth led the team to the 1915 World Series and brought them a win. With all the hard work and determination from the Bambino his salary took another leaping hop from thirty five hundred dollars to five thousand. Ruth claimed that the 1915 Red Sox champion team was his favorite team he had ever played for, even in his later years. Another year passes and yet again the Red Sox make it back to the world series with the help of Ruth and win their second world series in a row.By 1917, Babe Ruth was by far statistically and fan based declared Boston’s best Ace pitcher and left handed hitter in the league (Berke 35 – 36). In 1915 Babe Ruth struck out 112 batters with a season record of 18 – 8. He also had a 2. 44 run average. (ERA) In the year 1916 Babe Ruth lead the Red sox to a 23 – 12 record and had an ERA of 1. 75. The Boston Red Sox family would be the first to help the Great Bambino achieve such an amazing goal as a major league pitcher/player and that was to win a back to back world series. Babe started the1917 Red Sox season 10 – 1. He would go on to end that season with a 24 – 13 record with a 2. 1 ERA. 1917 Ruth went on to end the season with a total of 128 strikeouts, the leagues fifth highest total. This milestone was not broken until more than 4 decades later by Whitey Ford of the New York Yankees. The Bambino set a World Series record of twenty-nine and two thirds scoreless innings (Berke 37). 1918, game one R uth shut out the Cubs tossing a 1 – 0 six hitter and won game 4 of the World Series. With all of the pitching experience in high school, minor league, major league, and four World Series later the Bambino ended his pitching career with this 1918 World Series win against the Cubs (Berke 38).George Herman Ruth married a waitress by the name of Helen Woodford after meeting her in a Boston Restaurant. In the off-season the newly weds spent the winter with Babe’s father. The year 1919 Babe Ruth was now ranked as the greatest pitcher of all time. Being called the greatest pitcher of all time comes Celebrity status. Due to the Bambinos pitching success and batting prowess everyone looked him up to in this time period. Ruth was just as well known with his batting as much as his pitching with Boston. At the beginning of the 1919 season, Ruth became a full-fledged left fielder.He predicted he could help win more games playing every day in the outfield and getting to swing his ba t more than he did pitching every fourth game (Berke 39,40,41). In this day in age a home run hitter was an oddity and completely unheard of especially with the materials of the time frame. The bats weren’t as up to date as ours today and weight lifting is by no means as advanced as it is today. It was more of a game of strategy than a game of power hitters. 1919 was a very dark period of baseball other than Ruth’s home run exploits.The 1919 World Series is best remembered for the Chicago White Sox purposely throwing the game to the Cincinnati Reds to illegally gain money from gambling (Berke 42). 1920, a year Boston will never forget. Honestly one of the most remembered years of Major League baseball history. The Sultan of Swat, the Great Bambino, the Colossus of Clouds, the Babe Ruth was sold to the New York Yankees. Ruth was sold for an astonishing amount of one hundred twenty thousand dollars. Twice the amount ever paid for a player up until that point in history.A t this point, in Ruth’s life, there wasn’t a doubt in his mind that he wasn’t going to take the offer from New York. Do you blame him? One hundred twenty thousand dollars in 1920 was an extreme amount to pay for a player. It is said that New York had to take out loans to pick up Ruth but it was a move that will set New York up to be the greatest Dynasty in the game of baseball (Babe N. P. ). Boston is soon to find out that they had just been left with the curse of the bambino. After Ruth’s transition from Boston to New York he decided to still stay a full time outfielder.He new exactly what he was doing when he decided to become an outfielder and end his pitching career on a good note. The great bambino dominated the game with amassing numbers that had never been seen in the history of baseball. He changed the style of baseball from a high intense grind it out strategy style of game to a power and high scoring kind of game (Babe Babe). The record books we re about to be opened and stay wet with ink as long as Ruth was playing. It would be useless to close the record books because every game it would be opened right back up.Ruth’s records from a hitting standpoint were insane! With a high batting average and an uncontrollable, unbelievable power he had an assault on baseballs most hallowed records (Babe About). 1920 Ruth surpassed the home run record in a single season that he had set a year before at Boston by belting out 54 in just one season. A season in which no other player usually hit more than 19 and that was considered outstanding at this time. There had only been one team that hit more home runs in one season than babe had individually up until this point in history.In the following season Ruth was not done breaking records, he was just getting started. 1920 was the first year that Ruth had won his first home run title and definitely not his last. The Bambino drove an astonishing 114 home runs with the Yankees in the 1 920 season, which is a major league high (Babe teen). All eyes were on Ruth and because of him baseball became Americas favorite past time. Adults, kids, and the retired all spent their time watching or playing the great game of baseball that once did not seem so interesting.George Herman Ruth is responsible for the term the grand slam. A grand slam in the game of baseball is when bases are loaded and the player at bat hits a homerun allowing your team to advance four points. Ruth had 4 grand slams in 1920, which remained a Major league high for forty years (Berke 45 – 46). The New York Yankees ended their 1920 season with a ninety-five –- fifty-nine record and finished just three games behind the AL champions the Cleveland Indians. This was the eighteenth season for the Yankees managed under the one and only Miller Huggins.The Yankees of the 1920’s were the first major league baseball team to have more than a million fans attends their game (Berke 46 – 4 7). The Bambino was built for the expanding New York City of the nineteen twenties and the New York City of the nineteen twenties was built for him, they were perfect for each other. Now the war was long over done and all of our soldiers were back home. America was on top, second to no one with New York City the center attention. Giant skyscrapers, new and fancy cars, shopping centers, Broadway, clubs, sports. Who wouldn’t want to be apart of this growing city of excitement?The famous New York sportswriter Westbrook Pegler once quoted â€Å"The Era Of Wonderful Nonsense† or as another New York sports writer Paul Gallico said â€Å" We were like children who had just been let out of school†. Ruth landed him in the right place at the right time. Ruth acquired several new and fashionable names already within months, Sultan of Swat, the Caliph of Clout, the Wizard of Whack, the Rajah of Rap, the Wazir of Wham, the Mammoth of Maul, the Maharajah of Mash, the Bambino, the Bam, the Big Bam (Montville 106 – 107). The center of a half mile racetrack in Jacksonville Florida is where the Yankees training field was located.They traveled her by train from New York City. The team was already off playing cards for real money before they hit New Jersey. Ruth roomed with Ping Bodie in the Hotel Brunswick. The first night they arrived, Ruth participated in a basketball game for the Shawmut Athletic Club, in which he scored eight points in the 41 – 25 win. Ruth, still tanned from California wearing a large leather coat handing out Cigars left and right, hit the clubs that evening. After a night of fun and excitement he arrived back to his hotel room where he proceeded in shinning his golf clubs.On the first day in Jacksonville, practice was optional since Huggins hadn’t arrived, so the big bam decided to go tour the 18 holes at the Florida Country club with his new clubs. Newspapers reported that he wore a silk shirt and white golf flann els and at one point he threw up a golf club while a ball was in flight and hit it out of the air (Monteville 108 – 110). The place of camp was casual, the Brooklyn dodgers also trained in Jacksonville but on the other side of the city at Barrs Field. From the start, Ruth lived a different way of life than all of his teammates.Yankees owner gave the players five dollars per day for meal money. This changed fast because the players would eat cheap hot dogs every day and saved the money for late night fun. Babe lived on a higher economic and social level than the people around him. Ping Bodie, Ruth’s roommate in Jacksonville gave the press the answer everyone had been waiting for. They asked him what kind of guy George Herman Ruth was and Ping answered, â€Å" I don’t know, I don’t room with babe. I room with his suitcase. † (Monteville 112 – 114). Finally the first day of practice starts and the million-dollar question is asked.Is it possible that the Bambino mysteriously lost his amazing ability to crush a ball higher and farther than anyone else in the league? Maybe, just maybe through winter and Ruth’s off time not keeping up on his skills he lost his ability. March nineteenth, seventeen days after the team had arrived. Babe Ruth hit a smashing ball 478 feet. 50 feet over the center field fence, the fence was 428 feet deep (Monteville 112 – 115) Babe Ruth went on to become not only the greatest baseball player of all time but also a celebrity of his era. Babe helped the New York Yankees win seven pennants and four World Series titles.The Bambino retired in 1935. Just one year later in 1936 Babe was one of the first 5 elected into the baseball hall of fame. The Bambino is credited for the popularity of the game of baseball. He helped pick the speed of the game up from a low scoring speed dominated game to a high scoring power game. Since then he has became one of the greatest sports heroes in American hi story. The legendary power and the charismatic personality made the bambino larger than life itself. He was famous for his charity off of the diamond but also known for his reckless lifestyle.He went on to coach after retiring from the game. August 16, 1948 cancer got the best of the Bambino and he died at the age of 53. The legend of Babe Ruth will live on forever (World). Works Cited â€Å"Babe Ruth a Teen to Adult. † Babe Ruth Central The Site That Ruth Built. N. P. , n. d. Web. 22 Oct. 2012. http://www. baberuthcentral. com/biography/babe-ruths- personal-side/. â€Å"Babe Ruth. † About. com 20th Century History. N. p. , n. d. Web. 22 Oct. 2012. â€Å"Babe Ruth Biography. † Bio. com. A&E Networks Television, n. d. Web 22 Oct. 2012. http://www. baberuthbiography. com/ Babe Ruth Biography. † N. p. , n. d. Web. 22 Oct. 2012. http://espn. go. com/mlb/player/bio/_/id? 27035/babe-ruth. Berke, Art. Babe Ruth. New Yourk: F. Watts, 1988. Print. Fischer, David. B abe Ruth: Legendary Slugger. New York: Sterling, 2012. Print Hampton, Wilborn. Babe Ruth: A Twentieth-century Life. New York, NY: Viking, 2009. Print. Monteville, Leigh. The Big Bam: The Life and times of Babe Ruth. New York: Doubleday, 2006. Print. â€Å"World Biography. † Babe Ruth Biography. N. p. , n. d. Web. 22 Oct. 2012. http://www. notablebiographies. com/Ro-Sc/Ruth-Babe. html.

Difference between memory and knowledge Essay

Memory is the mental faculty of retaining and recalling past experience. It’s a very complex system and to understand it there have been many theories that attempt to explain it. In order to help me answer this question, I will look at the theorist JM Gardiner, along with other theorists such as Tulving, Mandler and Schacter in order to help me conclude if they are the same thing, inter-related or completely different. Tulving (1985), distinguished between two quite different recollective experiences: remembering, which is someone’s concrete awareness of oneself (autonoetic consciousness) in the past, which is driven by the prefrontal cortex, allows people to mentally represent past, present, and future experiences in a highly personal and subjective manner. And knowing, which is your abstract knowledge (noetic consciousness) of the past, which is the feeling that we know certain information and that the information is objective rather than subjective. Gardiner and colleagues (Gardiner & Java, 1990, 1993; Gardiner, Richardson-Klavhen, & Ramponi, 1997) developed a test in which participants are given a recognition task for a list of common words viewed earlier and classify each of the recognized items as something they remember (R response) or know (K response), was on the study list. Participants received detailed instructions so that their R responses and K responses reflect retrieval from episodic and semantic memory. For example, participants are told to make R responses to test items that they can consciously reexperience from the study list (e.g., participants make R responses to test items because in their mind’s eye, they consciously recollect seeing those words on the study list). In contrast, participants are told to make K responses to test items if they (a) are certain those were on the study list but (b) have no specific personal or contextual recollection of the items’ previous presentation. The use of this technique has shown that some independent variables (e.g., dividing attention at study) affect the frequency of R, but not K, responses, whereas other variables have the exact opposite influence. Memory of a personal life event may be categorized as a K response, which is  relatively impersonal and objective. A memory qualifies as a K response if people know a great deal about the details of a previous event but do not mentally reexperience the exact perceptual, contextual, and emotional details of the original event. Gardiner’s remember-know distinction maps are similar to that of Mandler’s (1980) distinction between recognition by retrieval and recognition by familiarity. Recognition by retrieval involves remembering an event as an event, including the personal, time and place context in which the event occurred; in contrast, recognition by familiarity involves a feeling that some event occurred in the past, in the absence of conscious recollection of that event. For Gardiner, Remember judgments reflect recognition by retrieval, while Know judgments reflect recognition by familiarity. An alternative framework is provided by Schacter’s (1987) distinction between explicit and implicit memory. The hippocampus is important in the formation of explicit memories. They involve the conscious recollection of an experience from the past. Due to the hippocampus not fully developing until about the age of 3, this explains why we can’t remember events prior to this, a condition known as infantile amnesia. The cerebellum seems important in the formation of implicit memories which are memory-based changes in behaviour that occur independent of, and in the classic case in the absence of, conscious recollection. Contexual information can be defined as information associated with memory which enables that memory to be distinguished from all others. Hewitt (1973) proposed a distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic context. A change in intinsic arises when some aspect of the target changes (ie the colour of their hair), whereas a change in extrinsic is the change in information accompanying the target (ie meeting someone in somewhere you wouldn’t expect them to be). In Gardiner’s case, remembering reflects explicit memory, while knowing reflects implicit memory. There are at least three varieties of recollective experience: firstly remembering which involves the conscious recollection of some past event, as an explicit expression of episodic memory; knowing which is the abstract  knowledge of that event, as an item in semantic memory; and feeling is the intuition that an event occurred in the past, as an implicit expression of episodic memory. So for example, semantic memory enables a man to know what the term birthday refers to and that he celebrated his last birthday by having dinner at a particular restaurant with his wife, whereas episodic memory allows that same man to reexperience from a personal and subjective point of view the sights, sounds, smells, and feelings that accompanied that dinner. Metamemory is our ability to know whether or not our memories contain a particular piece of information. An example might be failing to recall the capital of France (Paris) but knowing that you would recognise it if you saw it – this is an ability known as a feeling of knowing. These experiences are familiar to anyone who has ever taken a multiple-choice test. Sometimes, we choose a response because we remember the circumstances under which we learnt it. Or on other occasions, we choose a response because we just know the answer, it’s part of our knowledge about the world, and we don’t remember the circumstances under which we learned the answer. Tulving and Gardiner believe that remember and know judgments are based on retrieval from different memory systems: episodic and semantic memory, perhaps, or explicit and implicit memory. However, it could also be that â€Å"remember† and â€Å"know† are based on retrieval from a single memory system, and that the categories of remember, know, and so forth are substitutes for different levels of confidence associated with the recognition judgments. Both Tulving (1985) and Gardiner (1988) have rejected this interpretation, even though Tulving actually gathered evidence favouring it. Tulving’s subjects studied 36 words, and then made Yes/No recognition judgments, confidence ratings (on a 3 point scale), and Remember/Know ratings. The average confidence rating associated with Remember judgments was 2.74, while that of Know judgments was 2.08. However, Gardiner & Java (1990) argued that confidence ratings affect Remember/Know judgments. People may base their confidence ratings on their recollective experience, so that the two are not independent. In their 2nd  experiment, the subjects studied 60 items, 30 words and 30 non words, and then made Yes/No recognition judgments followed by Remember/Know ratings. The result was a double dissociation: more words received remember than know judgments, while the reverse was true for nonwords. In the 3rd experiment which was identical to the 2nd, except the people being tested classified recognized items into â€Å"Sure† and â€Å"Unsure† categories. This time there was no dissociation. Rajaram (1993) performed a similar pair of experiments, with similar results, and came to same conclusion. Substituting Sure/Unsure ratings for Remember/Know judgments got rid of the dissociations observed with Remember/Know, so both Gardiner and Java (1990) and Rajaram (1993) conclude that Remember/Know is not merely a substitute for confidence. Although the Remember/Know distinction is commonly interpreted in terms of different memory systems, it is suspected instead that these different memories reflect retrieval of different information from a single common store. Know judgments require retrieval only of information from a list, while remember judgments seem to require retrieval of information about spatiotemporal context, and you need to experience the event yourself. Knowing and remembering something are very similar, the definition of to know is to have fixed in the mind, recognize and have experience of, and the definition of remember is to retain in memory, to think of again. In order to know something it can be quite impersonal, general information about things such as the is the prime minister, this is the semantic memory, however in order to remember something you need to know specific details about the event such as going on holiday, you remember the sights and sounds and the feelings you experienced, this is the episodic memory. In order to remember you need to be able to retrieve information, remember an event as an event, whereas to know you need to just be familiar with it, have a feeling that some event may have occurred before. So to say there is a difference between knowing and remembering something is hard, there are clear cut differences as explained, however without one we couldn’t have the other, they are inter-related. It is all the same memory system in which we use to know or to remember something. It is the different  processes and different levels of experience or relation to you that makes them different. References †¢Gardiner, J.M., & Java, R.I. (1990). Recollective experience in word and nonword recognition. Memory & Cognition, 18, 23-30. †¢Memory and amnesia, 2nd edition, Alan J Parker, page 17-18,33, 36,116†¢Memory observed, remembering in natural contexts, 2nd edition, Ulric Neisser, Ira E. Hayman, jr. Page 109†¢Psychology powerpoint – Memory II – Lecture 3: Theories of Short and Long Term Memory, 2005, University of Glamorgan. †¢Rybash, John M.; Monaghan, Brynn E, Episodic and semantic contributions to older adults’ autobiographical recall, The Journal of General Psychology. 126 no1 (Jan. ’99) p. 85-96. †¢Schacter, D.L. (1987). Implicit memory: History and current status. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition, 501-518. †¢Tulving, E. (1972). Episodic and semantic memory. In E. Tulving & W. Donaldson (Eds.), Organization of memory (pp. 381-403). New York: Academic Press. †¢Tulving, E. (1985). Memory and consciousness. Canadian Psychology, 1-12. †¢Your Memory A user’s guide, Alan Baddeley, Page 13, 75-76,81,94-95,

Explain the link between constitutions and justice in Aristotle's Essay

Explain the link between constitutions and justice in Aristotle's Politics - Essay Example It is through the social construction of justice that a constitution is then created to reflect those traditions, beliefs, and behaviours that define a nation. Swanson and Corbin (2009) suggest that the most important thing to do when discussing Aristotle’s work in political philosophy is to understand the context in which his theories were constructed. Aristotle was not merely observing and reporting on the politics within his world, but was examining the nature of politics through academic and analytical approaches. Swanson and Corbin (2009: 2) boil the discussions that Aristotle made down to a central theory that politics are based upon â€Å"the desire to live well†. This very simple desire from within the human experience has spawned a complicated set of boundaries within which life is structured. As Aristotle discovered, through these structures, the pursuit of a good life has developed, sometimes favoring one social group over another, but always in a struggle to find justice and fairness in an attempt to socially balance life. Swanson and Corbin (2009) combine the effects of both Platonic and Aristotelian philosophies in order to reveal one of the most important developments towards Western politics. ... Aristotle pointed out that justice within personal relationships was based upon the degree of obligation that one has to another person. As an example, to not help a brother is a much more severe violation of human interaction than to fail to help a friend or an acquaintance. Goodman and Talisse (2007: 58) state that â€Å"the core idea of justice for him is political. It involves citizens who live in some kind of relation of equality and is not a natural extension of other kinds of justice†. In approaching justice through reason and intellect, political justice is then achieved through an equality that is defined by citizenship. Goodman and Talisse (2007) compare the philosophies of Aristotle to those of Confucius. Confucius looked at the â€Å"benevolent rule of a sage king† (Goodman and Talisse (2007: 59) and did not explore the idea of a constitution. In these types of regimes, the rule of culture is supported over that of law. Aristotle, on the other hand, though a cknowledging the benefits of an aristocracy, believes that the practical approach is through a â€Å"constitution based on the rule of the middle class† (Goodman and Talisse 2007: 59). Blumenfeld (2003) discusses the nature of the constitution and the use of it in a general polity. The word constitution is defined as both referring to the middle class and to the polity. The middle class is the basis of justice and the foundational social group to a polity with a constitution. There are psychologies that surround each of the social classes within a society. Aristotle considered the rich classes to be violent and beyond the power of rule. Obedience is not in the

Ethics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words - 3

Ethics - Essay Example That said, the main aim of this paper should be to investigate and discuss the ways that an organization can manage ethical behavior within its structure and pertinent to the larger body of stakeholders. There are types of methods or means of managing ethical behavior within an organization and its stakeholder circles. Categorized as formal and informal means, these form the mainstay of a manager’s, or management teams’ effort at introducing and managing ethical behavior within the organization (Phillips & Margolis 1999). The first or formal means of managing ethical behavior in an organization entails the results of years of research and widespread trials in the industry. These include; the core value statement, the mission statement, the code of ethics, compliance manuals, and ethics standards and indices. The second or informal means of managing ethical behavior in the organization and its wider stakeholders setting are more or less the result of years of experience in the industry and a distillate of the vast pool of experience in optimizing organizational performance through ethics. These means are; manager concern/role-modeling, candid ethical communication, et hics as a topic of employee conversation, reward and penalty systems, and communication of stories (Schnebel & Bienert 2004). In addition to the means of managing ethical behavior, the paper shall venture into other issues that are relevant to this topic. Since management ethics is a wide topic, the process might venture into issues such as codes of conduct and codes of ethics, workplace ethics theories, training and its role in the management of workplace ethics, the impact of new technology on ethical behavior, and corporate social responsibility (Solomon 2004). Formal methods of managing ethical behavior pertain to the methods individuals or organizational teams strive to improve their employees’

Latin AM Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Latin AM - Essay Example This is primarily focused on seeking refuge and overall fight for these minors’ rights and freedoms. Democracy per se lacks in most of Central American nations states. The immigration â€Å"crisis† in the U.S. is due to favourable immigration policies that were adopted by the government (Washington 111). In the United States, human dignity is aptly upheld. Both the minor and adult immigrants are equally represented in the constitution. An equal representation of people in the U.S. is the key reason as to why the thousands of Central American minors are fleeing into this country. The surge of minor Central American refugees has significantly increased. In fact, it has doubled in volume every year. As many of minor refugees have no parents or legal guardians available to provide them with physical care or custody, they resolve to migrate. The U.S. government considerately due to minor immigration adopted favourable caretaking policy for these immigrants (Soerens & Jenny 101). These provisions have even worsened the situation more thus resulting into refugees â€Å"crisis† in America. The local border patrols in the coming years will be in for a rude shock. This is due to extra-ordinary immigration into the U.S. There would therefore definitely be an â€Å"outburst† immig rant’s population in the U.S refugees’ camps. The views of the major partners on the issue of immigration â€Å"crisis† have over a long period been same and contradictory. This is because American society is both a multicultural and multi-lingual one. The incoming Senate majority leader Mitch McConnell (R-KY), for example perceives this issue as an entanglement of the U.S. expenditure. Immigration debate in the Senate emerged to be a major reason for the entanglement of the U.S. spending bill (Washington 146). The executive order by president Obama on immigration even worsens the situation. According to Mitch, this was an extra-ordinary execution of power by the president. This move